In this journal entry, reflect on at least two things you learned or discovered through the Chapter’s readings. Reflect on how a particular topic in the chapter was interesting, challenging, boring, surprising to you and how you may apply a particular concept or theory you learned in the reading in your current or future profession.
Instructions: There is no minimum word limit for your journals, however, you will need to put in some effort and write at least a couple of good paragraphs for your reflection journals.
Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction
Thirteenth Edition
Chapter 2
The Crime Picture
Copyright
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Crime Data and Social Policy
• Crime statistics provide an overview of criminal activity
• A statistical picture of crime can be a powerful tool for
creating social policy
• The objectivity of crime statistics has been questioned
• Public opinion about crime is not always realistic and is
greatly influenced by the news media
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The Collection of Crime Data
• Two major sources of crime statistics
– Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR /NIBRS), run
by the FBI
– National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), run by
the Bureau of Justice Statistics
• Offender self-reports
– Based on surveys asking respondents to reveal
involvement in illegal activity
– Not national in scope, not conducted regularly
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Figure 2.1The Criminal Justice
Funnel
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Development of the UCR Program
(1 of 2)
• Began in 1930 when Congress designated the FBI to
implement a national crime statistics program
– In the first year, the FBI received reports from 400
cities in 43 states, covering 20 million people
– Today, approximately 18,000 agencies provide
information
• Uses standardized definitions of offenses to ensure
uniformity in reporting
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Development of the UCR Program
(2 of 2)
• Originally included a Crime Index to allow comparisons
over time
• Made up of 7 Part I
offenses
– Murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated
assault
,
burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft
– An eighth Part I crime, arson, was added in 1979
• Crime Index skewed by large numbers of larceny-theft
offenses
• The Crime Index was discontinued in 2004
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The National Incident-Based
Reporting System (NIBRS) (1 of 2)
• Development initiated in 1988
• A significant redesign of the original UCR Program
• Incident-driven, not summary-based
• Gathers many more details about each criminal
incident
• 8 Part I offenses replaced with 52 Group A offenses
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The National Incident-Based
Reporting System (NIBRS) (2 of 2)
• FBI began accepting crime data in NIBRS format in
January 1989.
• The NIBRS format has not been fully adopted and
changes continue to be made.
• Major advantages of NIBRS
– Sheer increase in volume of data collected
– Ability to break down and combine crime offense data
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Table 2.1 Differences between
Traditional UCR and Enhanced UCR/
NIBRS Reporting (1 of 2)
Traditional UCR Enhanced UCR/NIBRS
Consists of monthly aggregate crime
counts
Consists of individual incident records
for the eight major crimes and 38 other
offenses, with details on offense, victim,
offender, and property involved
Records one offense per incident, as
determined by the hierarchy rule, which
suppresses counts of lesser offenses in
multiple-offense incidents
Records each offense occurring in an
incident
Does not distinguish between attempted
and
completed crimes
Distinguishes between attempted and
completed crimes
Collects assault information in flve
categories
Restructures definition of assault
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Table 2.1 Differences between
Traditional UCR and Enhanced UCR/
NIBRS Reporting (2 of 2)
Traditional UCR Enhanced UCR/NIBRS
Collects weapon information for murder,
robbery, and
aggravated assault
Collects weapon information for all violent
offenses
Provides counts on arrests for the eight
major crimes and 21 other offenses
Provides details on arrests for the eight
major crimes and 49 other offenses
Distinguishes between personal (violent)
and property crimes
General categories of crime consist
of crimes against persons, property,
and society
Sees robbery as a personal crime Classifies robbery as a properly crime
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Historical Trends (1 of 4)
• The first major shift in crime rates occurred in the early
1940s
– Crime decreased due to the large number of young
men who entered military service during WWII
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Historical Trends (2 of 4)
• The second shift occurred between 1960 and 1989
– Dramatic increase in most forms of crime
– Postwar baby boomers reaching crime-prone age
– Growing police professionalization increased the
number of reports
– Tumult of the 1960s
– Increase in drug-related criminal activity
– Blurring of social norms
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Historical Trends (3 of 4)
• The third shift occurred between 1990 and
2017
– Significant decrease in rates of most major crimes
– Strict laws, expanded justice system
– National efforts to combat crime, better prepared
agencies, innovative police programs
– Strong victims’ movement
– Sentencing reform and “get tough on crime” initiatives
– “War on drugs”
– Advances in forensic science technology
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Historical Trends (4 of 4)
• A fourth shift in crime trends may be on the horizon
– Economic uncertainty, increasing numbers of ex-
convicts back on the streets, increased teen
populations and gang activity
– Social disorganization due to natural disasters
– Mass shootings, inner-city murders, increasing
influence of gangs
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UCR/NIBRS in Transition (1 of 2)
• FBI crime clock illustrates crime frequency
• Crime clock includes two categories of offenses
– Violent/personal crimes: murder, forcible rape, robbery,
aggravated assault
– Property crimes: burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle
theft, burglary, arson
• Based on crimes reported to or discovered by the police
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UCR/NIBRS in Transition (2 of 2)
• John Augustus of Boston, Massachusetts, is recognized
as the father of probation
– Volunteered to supervise over 1,800 offenders to
alieve jails
• Massachusetts was the first state to pass a probation
statute in 1878
– Remaining states quickly followed
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Figure 2.4 The FBI Crime Clock, Which
Shows the Frequency of the
Commission of Major Crimes in 2017
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Table 2.2 Major Crimes Known to the Police,
2017
Offense Number Rate per 100,000 Clearance Rate (%)
Personal/Violent Crimes
Murder 17,284 5.3 61.6
Rape 99,856 30.7 34.5
Robbery 319,356 98.0 29.7
Aggravated assault 810,825 248.9 53.3
Property Crimes
Burglary 1,401,840 430.4 13.5
Larceny-theft 5,519,107 1,694.4 19.2
Motor vehicle theft 773,139 237.4 13.7
Arsona 36,660 13.2 21.7
U.S. Total 8,978,067 2,758.3
a Arson can be classified as either a property crime or a violent crime, depending on whether personal injury or loss of
life results from its commission. It is generally classified as a property crime, however. Arson statistics are incomplete for
2017, and are not included in other annual crime rate calculations in this chapter.
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Murder (1 of 2)
• The unlawful killing of a human being
– First-degree murder: criminal homicide that is planned
– Second-degree murder: intentional killing but generally
unplanned
• Smallest numerical category in Part I offenses
• Most commonly committed using firearms, especially
handguns
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Murder (2 of 2)
• Multiple murders
– Spree killings: killings at two or more locations with
almost no time break between murders
– Mass murder: killing four or more victims at one
location, within one event
– Serial murder: killing several victims in three or more
separate events
• Murder has the highest clearance rate of any major crime
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Rape
• Unlawful sexual intercourse achieved through force and
without consent
• UCR definition changed in 2012 to be gender-neutral
• Statistics include attempted rape by force or threat of
force, but not statutory rape
• Least reported of all violent crimes
• Most rapes committed by someone known to the victim
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Robbery
• The unlawful taking or attempted taking of property that is
in the immediate possession of another by force or
violence and/or by putting the victim in fear
• Strong-arm robbery occurs through intimidation, rather
than with a weapon
• Street/highway robbery occurs outdoors
• Most common targets are individuals
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Figure 2.5 Robbery Types, 2017
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Aggravated Assault
• Two types of assaults
– Simple (misdemeanor)
– Aggravated (felony)—involves weapon or victim
requires medical assistance
• Mostly committed using blunt objects or with hands, feet,
and fists
• Assailants often known to victims, making this crime
relatively easy to solve
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Burglary
• The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or
theft
• Considered a property crime although it may involve
personal confrontation
• UCR/NIBRS uses three classifications
– Forcible entry
– Unlawful entry where no force is used
– Attempted forcible entry
• Clearance rate low
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Larceny-Theft
• The unlawful taking or attempted taking of property from
the possession of another
• Most frequently reported Part I offense
• May be the most underreported crime category because
small thefts rarely come to the attention of the police
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Figure 2.7 Larceny-Theft Distribution,
2017
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Identity Fraud: A New Kind of
Larceny
• Involves obtaining credit, merchandise, or services by
fraudulent personal representation
• Fastest-growing type of crime in America
• Became a federal crime in 1998 with the passage of the
Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act
• May be perpetrated through the use of high technology
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Motor Vehicle Theft
• The theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle, which
includes any self-propelled vehicle that runs on land and
not on rails
• Very highly reported because insurance companies
usually require police reports before reimbursing car
owners
• Low clearance rate
• Carjacking involves violence
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Arson
• Any willful or malicious burning, with or without intent to
defraud, a dwelling, public building, motor vehicle, etc.
• Not all agencies submit arson data and many provide
incomplete information
• Arson data only includes fires known to have been willfully
or maliciously set
• Clearance rate low
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Part II Offenses
• Part II offenses are generally less serious than Part I
offenses
• Include a number of social-order (“victimless”) crimes
• UCR statistics only include recorded arrests, not crimes
reported to the police
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Table 2.3 UCR/NIBRS Part II Offenses, 2017
Offense Category Number of Arrests
Simple assaults 1,062,370
Forgery and counterfeiting 55,604
Fraud 124,232
Embezzlement 15,967
Stolen property (e.g., receiving) 98,660
Vandalism 188,350
Weapons (e.g., carrying) 164,984
Prostitution and related offenses 36,248
Sex offenses (e.g., statutory rape) 48,525
Drug-abuse violations 1,632,921
Gambling 3,237
Offenses against the family (e.g., nonsupport) 94,062
Driving under the influence 990,678
Liquor-law violations 207,332
Public drunkenness 366,824
Disorderly conduct 353,151
Vagrancy 23,321
Curfew violations/loitering 30,131
Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, 2017 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2018).
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The National Crime Victimization
Survey (1 of 2)
• Based on victim self-reports
• First conducted in 1972
• Designed to uncover information on the dark figure of
crime—crimes that are not reported to the police and that
are unknown to officials
• Early victim self-report data showed that crimes of all
types were more prevalent that UCR statistics indicated
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The National Crime Victimization
Survey (2 of 2)
• Involves a survey of a nationally representative sample of
about 90,000
households
• Only individuals aged 12+ are interviewed
• Collects data on crimes against individuals and
households
• Includes data on rape, sexual assault, robbery, assault,
burglary, personal and household larceny, motor vehicle
theft—definitions similar to those used by UCR/NIBRS
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Comparisons of the UCR and the
NCVS (1 of 2)
• Difficulties with UCR/NIBRS Program
– Not all victims report crime
– Some crime types rarely reported
– High-tech and computer crime may be
underrepresented
– Victim reports may be inaccurate
– Reports filtered through multiple levels
– Only include data that creators consider appropriate
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Comparisons of the UCR and the
NCVS (2 of 2)
• Difficulties with NCVS
– Responses subjective, respondents provide personal
interpretations
– Some victims less willing to respond
– Victims may be afraid to respond or may invent
victimizations
– No attempt to validate information against police
records or other sources
– Only includes data creators consider appropriate
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Special Categories of Crime
• Crime Typology
– A classification of crimes along a particular dimension
– Used in the study and description of criminal behavior
– Social relevance is a central distinguishing feature of
any meaningful typology
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Crime against Women
• Women less frequently victimized in all personal crime
categories except rape
– Women more likely to be injured during violent
victimization
– More likely to modify the way they life because of
threat of crime
• Major issues include date rape, familial incest, spousal
abuse, stalking, and exploitation through social-order
offenses such as prostitution and pornography
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The Violence against Women Act
(1 of 2)
• Title IV of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement
Act of 1994
• Increased federal penalties for repeat sex offenders,
requires mandatory restitution for sex crimes
• Provided grants to combat violent crimes against women
• Creation of hotlines, information, training programs for
professionals providing assistance to victims of sexual
assault
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The Violence against Women Act
(2 of 2)
• Increased grants for battered women’s shelters
• Encouraged arrest in cases of domestic violence
• Provided for creation of national domestic-violence hotline
• Recent reauthorizations included new provisions
– Protections for prospective foreign brides immigrating
to the United States
– Protections for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender
Americans
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Crime against the Elderly
• Criminal victimization declines with age
• Older people (65+) generally experience the lowest rate of
victimization of any age group
• The elderly face special kinds of victimization that rarely
affect younger adults
– Risk of abuse and neglect by caregivers
– More often targeted by con artists
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Hate Crime
• A criminal offense motivated by the offender’s bias against
a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or
ethnicity/national origin
• Most common motivation is racial bias, most common
offense is intimidation
• Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes
Prevention Act (2010)—expanded federal definition to
include crimes based on gender identity or disability
• Sometimes called “bias crimes”
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Figure 2.8 Motivation of Hate-Crime Offenders, 2017
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Corporate and White-Collar Crime
(1 of 2)
• Identification doctrine
– Corporations can be treated as separate legal entities
and convicted of crimes
• Corporate crime:
– A violation of criminal statute by a corporate entity or
by its executives, employees, or agents for the benefit
of the corporation
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Corporate and White-Collar Crime
(2 of 2)
• White-collar crime
– Financially motivated nonviolent crime committed by
business and government professionals
• Sarbanes–Oxley Act (2002)
– Federal law creating tough provisions designed to
deter and punish corporate fraud and corruption
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Organized Crime
• Organized crime
– The unlawful activities of the members of a highly
organized, disciplined association engaged in
supplying illegal goods or services
• Transnational organized crime
– Unlawful activity undertaken and supported by
organized criminal groups operating across national
boundaries
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Gun Crime
• Supreme Court has come down in support of the Second
Amendment right to bear arms
• Legislation restricting gun ownership
– 1993 Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act
– 1994 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act
– 1996 Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban
– 2004 Protection of Lawful Commerce in Firearms Act
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Drug Crime
• Drug crimes continued to rise in early twenty-first century
while rates of other crimes decreased
• Increasing arrests led to significant growth in prison
populations
• Opioid abuse has been declared a national public health
emergency
• Drug abuse linked to other serious crimes
• Legalization of medical marijuana
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Figure 2.9 Americans’ Views on
Legalizing Marijuana
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Cybercrime
• Crimes committed using computers and computer
technology
• Many computer crimes are traditional offenses that use
technology, rather than new forms of offending
• Key concerns include malware such as computer viruses,
spam, and phishing
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Terrorism
• A violent act or an act dangerous to human life in violation
of the criminal laws of the United States or of any state,
committed to intimidate or coerce a government, the
civilian population, or any segment thereof in furtherance
of political or social objectives
• Became a primary concern after the
attacks
on September
11, 2001
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Types of Terrorism
• Domestic terrorism
– Offenders based within the United States, acts directed
against U.S. government or population
• International terrorism
– Offenders have connection with foreign power or
activities transcend national
boundaries
• Cyberterrorism
– Using high technology to plan and carry out terrorist
attacks
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Organization and Scope of Terrorist
Groups
• Top tier groups: groups like ISIS, al-Qaeda
• Middle tier groups—most complex, includes small groups
with ties to an established terrorist organization but are
largely self-directed
• Bottom tier groups—homegrown extremists
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Crime in International Context
• Criminal activity has become big business around the
world
• Transnational offenses
– Unlawful activity that occurs across national
boundaries
– Includes drug running, human trafficking and
smuggling, cybercrime, money laundering, and more
“traditional” forms of crime
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